Luận văn tiếng Anh: An evaluation of the application of Phonics software in an English course for children at Thinh Quang Primary school= Đánh giá việc ứng dụng phần mềm tiếng Anh Phonics đối với khóa học tiếng Anh của học sinh tại trường tiểu học Thịnh Quang. M.A. Thesis Linguistics: 60 14 10
Nhà xuất bản: ĐHNN
Ngày: 2010
Chủ đề: Phần mềm tiếng Anh
Tiếng Anh
Trường tiểu học
Miêu tả: 43 p. + CD-ROM
M.A. Thesis English Teaching Methodology -- University of Foreign Languages and International Studies. Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 2010
Acceptance page i
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
Table of content iv
List of abbreviations vi
List of figures and tables vii
PART I - INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction and rationale for the study 1
2. Aims and objectives of the study 1
3. Research questions 2
4. Scope of the study 2
5. Methods of the study 3
5. Significance of the study 3
6. Organization of the study 4
PART II - DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
1. 1. CALL Models in Language teaching and learning 5
1.2. Motivation and the Young – Learner 6
1.2.1. Definiton of Motivation 7
1.2.2. The Young-Learner 8
1.3. Instructional design 9
1.3.1. Instructional design and Motivation 9
1.3.2. Keller's ARCS Model 10
1.3.2.1. Attention 10
1.3.2.2. Relevance 11
1.3.2.3. Confidence 12
1.3.2.4. Satisfaction 12v
1.3.3. Motivation Instrument 14
1.4. Researches on ARCS 14
CHAPTER 2: THE DESIGN OF PHONICS AND AN OVERVIEW OF THE
USE OF PHONICS at THINH QUANG PRIMARY SCHOOL
16
2.1. The design of Phonics 16
2.1.1. Phonics structure 16
2.1.2. Guided teaching techniques 19
2.2. An overview of the use of Phonics at Thinh Quang primary school 20
2.2.1. The origin of Phonics 20
2.3.2. The context of Thinh Quang school 20
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 21
3.1. Research design 21
3.2. Participants of the study 22
3.3. Data collection 22
3.3.1. Data collection instrument 22
3.3.2. Data collection procedure 23
3.4. Data analysis 24
CHAPTER 4: RESULT FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS 26
4.1. Result fingdings 26
4.1.1. Demographic summary 26
4.1.2. Research questions 26
4.1.2.1. Research question 1 28
4.1.2.2. Research question 2 32
4.1.2.3. Research question 3 34
4.1.2.4. Research question 4 38
4.2. Implications 39
PART III - CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 40
1. Conclusion 40
2. Limitations of the research and suggestions for further study 40
REFERENCES 42
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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IT: Information Technology
ICT: Information Communication Technology
ARCS: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction
CALL: Computer-assisted Language Learning
ISD: Instructional System Design
CIS: Course Interest Survey
IMMS: Instructional Materials Motivation Surveyvii
LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
No Title Page
Table 1 – 1 Summary of ARCS Components 13
Table 4 – 1 Frequencies of Participants Concerning their Ages 26
Table 4 - 2 Statistics of the ARCS Sub-Scores on IMMS 27
Table 4 - 3 Statistics for the “Attention” Sub-scores on the IMMS 28
Table 4 - 4 Statistics for the “Relevance” Sub-Scores on the IMMS 32
Table 4 - 5 Statistics for the “Confidence” Sub-Scores on the IMMS 35
Table 4 - 6 Statistics for the “Satisfaction” Sub-Scores on the IMMS 38
Chart 4 - 1 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #7 29
Chart 4 - 2 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #9 30
Chart 4 - 3 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #18 31
Chart 4 - 4 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #27 33
Chart 4 - 5 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #5 34
Chart 4 - 6 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #3 36
Chart 4 - 7 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #6 37
Chart 4 - 8 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #28 37
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi1
PART I - INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction and rationale of the study
The 21st century has witnessed the rapid development of information technology and its
impacts on every aspect of our social life in which education in general and foreign language
teaching and learning in particular have been strongly affected. It can be said that ICT has
been applied in many teachers‟ lectures to bring fun and interest to students in English classes.
Ahead the trend of integration and development of technology, recognizing the benefit of ICT,
at the beginning of the year 2009, Thinh Quang primary school started using Phonics – an
English software - in English teaching and learning with the belief that Phonics would lay the
foundation to improve English language learning among children and create the environment
for children practice English from the early age.
It lies in the fact that Phonics is a newborn English program applied in some schools in
Vietnam including Thinh Quang primary school. This program is also the novel practice of
Phonics at Thinh Quang. It is partly for this deep-rooted reason that the researcher decided to
conduct the study to the extent the application of Phonics software brings about children’s
motivation. The researcher hold the belief that through the evaluation of the application of
Phonics there would bring insights into the changes of teaching practices among teachers to
better it, and basic premise for the administrators in considering using this software.
Specifically, the study is of: “An evaluation of the application of Phonics software in an
English course for children at Thinh Quang primary school.”
2. Aims and objectives of the Study
The study aims to evaluate the application of Phonics software based on the motivation
created on the part of children in an English course at Thinh Quang primary school.
Hence, it is expected to achieve the four following objectives:2
First, to investigate whether Phonics holds children attention.
Second, to find out the relevance of the application of Phonics to the children level.
Third, to investigate if the application of Phonics brings children‟s confidence in
learning English at class.
Last, to reveal children‟s satisfaction to the application of Phonics in the English
course.
3. Research questions
In order to achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions were raised:
(1) To what extent does Phonics hold children attention?
(2) To what extent is the application relevant to the children?
(3) To what extent does Phonics bring about children‟s confidence?
(4) To what extent are the children satisfied with the application?
4. Scope of the Study
The present study operates within the following scopes:
(i) As constructed in the IT, “application” depends on both the users (in context of
classroom, they are the teachers and the learners) and the instructional design. The
research is to evaluate the instructional design of the program. Purposely, it goes to
evaluate the motivation due to the instructional design created on part of the
children in an English course at Thinh Quang primary school.
(ii) This study is a case study since the instructional design is restricted by the children.
(iii) Regarding to the monitoring of the software, (Galavis, 1998) pointed out that
„Instead of being a simple holder and provider of knowledge, the teacher will
become the guide of students.‟ The teacher, in this case, does play the role as the
guider who controls the software leading children through every activity without
intervening the content of the software.
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi3
5. Methods of the Study
Case study was chosen as a research method applying for this study.
A questionnaire was used as a main instrument on 141 children of 4 classes including grade 1
and 2 at Thinh Quang primary school who have just finished the first level of the program –
Phonics, i.e., level starter, to investigate whether the instructional design brings about
motivation on children based on ARCS model of Keller (1993), including Attention,
Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction.
An interview is then conducted on some students for clarifying problems arising from the data.
6. Significance of the Study
The research, first of all, would provide the researcher herself with further information to
validate the new software for the children, to see whether it is a good one in term of the
motivational factors positively affected through its instructional design.
The second significance of the study is for the improvement of English teaching and learning
at Thinh Quang primary school. The research is of great value for the teachers by providing
them a deep overview from the extent that the instructional design brings about children‟s
motivation. The teachers then would have better adapting in their teaching to better children‟s
learning.
Last but not least significance of the study lies in the fact that it can bring the teachers, the
students and the administrators the beliefs of using IT in language teaching and learning. The
researcher hopes that it would bring them positive beliefs on the use of information technology
in their class and school.
Finally, the study then informs to the designers of the children‟s perception of their software.
Accordingly, they would aware of the strong and weak points of their product.4
7. Organization of the Study
This study consists of three main parts: introduction, development, and conclusion.
The introduction presents the rationale, the aims and objectives, research questions, scope,
method, significance and design of the study.
The development comprises three chapters:
- Chapter one reviews the theoretical background to the application of CALL in English
language teaching with the models of CALL, the relation between motivation and the
young-learner, the relation between instructional design and motivation, the
description of Keller‟s ARCS Model of Motivation and some prominent recent
researches on ARCS of Keller.
- Chapter two details the setting of the study in which all the language items displayed in
the software are specifically defined and the context of the study are also described.
- Chapter three presents the methodology of the study.
- Chapter four is where the data are presented, the findings come up with and the
implications built upon the basis of the evaluation in the previous chapters.
The conclusion, apart from summarizing the main issues so far touched upon in the study,
proposes recommendation for future research.
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi5
PART II – DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews selected literature reflective the potential impact of instructional design
on learner motivation. The chapter considers the popular models of CALL in language
teaching and learning and then reviews the relationship between motivation and the younglearner. Next the chapter looks at the principles of instructional design system, including
Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivation and its Motivation Instrumentation that support the
theory of improving learner motivation. It then ends by summarizing some prominent ARCS
researches laying the foundation for the present study.
1. 1. CALL Models in Language teaching and learning
According to Taylor (1980, cited in Warschaure (1996), the first model of CALL is computer
as a tutor, adopting the role of the teacher. He explained that the computer serves as a vehicle
for delivering instructional materials to the student. Many of the early CALL exercises were
drill and practice activities, often focusing on accuracy and fluency. The rationale for drill and
practice is as follows:
* Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning
* A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored
with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental
feedback
* A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to
proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities
Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the
mainframe computers. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which6
included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at
various intervals.
In addition to computer as tutor, according to Taylor & Perez (1989) “another CALL model
used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus” (p. 63). In this case, the
purpose of the CALL activity is not so much as a tutorial itself but to generate analysis, critical
thinking, discussion, and writing. Software used for these purposes include various programs
which may not have been specifically designed for language learners, programs such as Sim
City, Sleuth, or Where in the World is San Diego?
The third model of computers involves the computer as a tool (Taylor, 1980) or, as sometimes
called, the computer as workhorse (Taylor & Perez, 1989). In this role, the programs
empower the learner to use or understand language. Wordstore, for example, allows users to
record vocabulary in a categorized dictionary, giving users both the opportunity to organize
vocabulary effectively and to retrieve words or phrases with greater ease when completing a
translation or other similar text (Jones 1986, p. 176, cited in Barr, 2004). Some more examples
of computer as tool include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top
publishing programs, and concordancers.
Of course the distinction between these models is not absolute. A skill practice program can be
used as a conversational stimulus, as a paragraph written by a student on a word processor.
Likewise, there are a number of drill and practice programs which could be used in a more
communicative fashion - if, for example, students were assigned to work in pairs or small
groups and then compare and discuss their answers.
Among the three models offered by Taylor (1980), Phonics software embraced all
characteristics as of a tutor. This means that it rejects the role of the teacher in class by
providing the instructional materials itself.
1.2. Motivation and the Young - Learner
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi7
1.2.1. Definition of Motivation
Foreign language acquisition theories support the notion that motivation is an important
factor in foreign language learning. Despite the widespread recognition of motivation as a
contributory factor to the success in language learning, defining it is problematic. This is a
problem because the clarification of a definition is the first step to any further investigation.
According to Gardner (1985, cited in Dornyei 2001: 49), motivation can be classified with
three components, including:
(1) motivational intensity
(2) desire to learn the language
(3) attitude towards learning the language
Gardner argued that these three components belong together because truly motivated
individual displays all three. The orientation helps to arouse motivation and then directs it
towards a set of goals, either with a strong interpersonal quality or a strong practical quality.
From Keller‟s point of view, motivation “refers to the magnitude and direction of behavior…
it refers to the choices people make as to what experience or goals they will approach or avoid,
and to the degree of effort they will exert in that respect” (Keller, 1983, p. 369). He then adds
three underlying assumptions for systematic motivational design as (a) people‟s motivations
can be influenced by external events; (b) motivation, in relation to performance, is a means
and not an end; and (c) systematic design and implementation can predictably and measurably
influence motivation. Put it another way, motivation based on Keller‟s definition, is measured
by the amount of effort the student makes in order to attain the instructional goal.
As can be inferred from the two definitions of motivation, the core elements in both are the
attitude, the effort and experience. Since the study focus on instructional design of the
software that bring about students‟ motivation, the definition of Keller is specific and of
referable.8
1.2.2. The Young-Learner
As the study deals with the subject of motivation, and more specifically, motivation in
instructional design, it is useful to consider the subject of young learners.
Foreign language instruction must take into the needs and characteristics of young learners in
order to be successful. Teaching objectives and approaches should be geared to the learners‟
cognitive level and interests. Young learners at the transition level (ages 5–8) generally have
the following characteristics. They are:
APPENDIX B
FOLLOW – UP INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Eight children from 4 classes were asked to clarify in details the following statement based
on their opinion in the questionnaire survey.
Item #3* The lessons were more difficult to understand than I would like for it to be.
‘I feel that all the lessons are of difficult to understand, especially the reading section
which includes long sentences. I also find the pronunciation difficult too, I cannot imitate
exactly many words.’
‘I feet it difficult in writing section, the words are some time long that take me long time to
remember, just some common or easy words are of my favor.’
Item #5 It is clear to me how the content of this material is related to things I already
know.
‘There are many familiar topics such as animals, fruits, family, etc. Words and sentences
are the same with things in the life.’
‘Some stories are not of true or the same in my life such as the story about the horse, the
insect; I don’t like horses and insects.’
‘Some the same and some different. Some are familiar with me such as the boy, the girl.
Some are strange to me such the the owl, the mouse that can say, unbelievable.’
Item #18* The amount of repetition in every lesson caused me to get bored
sometimes.
‘I see the cartoon characters always repeated their saying or say the same thing so many
times that make me feel bored.’
‘I like all the cartoon stories; many of them are so good and interesting. However, for
example, if the boy and the girl appear in the stories all the time I would not like that way.’
‘I like the way the cartoon character repeats the sounds and words. This helps me a lot in
remembering them, sounding them and it is not boring at all.’ (2 children)
‘The continuous repetition is boring and I don’t like the scene that the boy and girl appear
all the time.’ (2 children)
‘The repetition helps me feel easy to learn by heard or remember the words or sounds right
in the class and feel of no boring.
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Nhà xuất bản: ĐHNN
Ngày: 2010
Chủ đề: Phần mềm tiếng Anh
Tiếng Anh
Trường tiểu học
Miêu tả: 43 p. + CD-ROM
M.A. Thesis English Teaching Methodology -- University of Foreign Languages and International Studies. Vietnam National University, Hanoi, 2010
Acceptance page i
Acknowledgements ii
Abstract iii
Table of content iv
List of abbreviations vi
List of figures and tables vii
PART I - INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction and rationale for the study 1
2. Aims and objectives of the study 1
3. Research questions 2
4. Scope of the study 2
5. Methods of the study 3
5. Significance of the study 3
6. Organization of the study 4
PART II - DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
1. 1. CALL Models in Language teaching and learning 5
1.2. Motivation and the Young – Learner 6
1.2.1. Definiton of Motivation 7
1.2.2. The Young-Learner 8
1.3. Instructional design 9
1.3.1. Instructional design and Motivation 9
1.3.2. Keller's ARCS Model 10
1.3.2.1. Attention 10
1.3.2.2. Relevance 11
1.3.2.3. Confidence 12
1.3.2.4. Satisfaction 12v
1.3.3. Motivation Instrument 14
1.4. Researches on ARCS 14
CHAPTER 2: THE DESIGN OF PHONICS AND AN OVERVIEW OF THE
USE OF PHONICS at THINH QUANG PRIMARY SCHOOL
16
2.1. The design of Phonics 16
2.1.1. Phonics structure 16
2.1.2. Guided teaching techniques 19
2.2. An overview of the use of Phonics at Thinh Quang primary school 20
2.2.1. The origin of Phonics 20
2.3.2. The context of Thinh Quang school 20
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 21
3.1. Research design 21
3.2. Participants of the study 22
3.3. Data collection 22
3.3.1. Data collection instrument 22
3.3.2. Data collection procedure 23
3.4. Data analysis 24
CHAPTER 4: RESULT FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS 26
4.1. Result fingdings 26
4.1.1. Demographic summary 26
4.1.2. Research questions 26
4.1.2.1. Research question 1 28
4.1.2.2. Research question 2 32
4.1.2.3. Research question 3 34
4.1.2.4. Research question 4 38
4.2. Implications 39
PART III - CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 40
1. Conclusion 40
2. Limitations of the research and suggestions for further study 40
REFERENCES 42
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phivi
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
IT: Information Technology
ICT: Information Communication Technology
ARCS: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, Satisfaction
CALL: Computer-assisted Language Learning
ISD: Instructional System Design
CIS: Course Interest Survey
IMMS: Instructional Materials Motivation Surveyvii
LIST OF TABLES AND CHARTS
No Title Page
Table 1 – 1 Summary of ARCS Components 13
Table 4 – 1 Frequencies of Participants Concerning their Ages 26
Table 4 - 2 Statistics of the ARCS Sub-Scores on IMMS 27
Table 4 - 3 Statistics for the “Attention” Sub-scores on the IMMS 28
Table 4 - 4 Statistics for the “Relevance” Sub-Scores on the IMMS 32
Table 4 - 5 Statistics for the “Confidence” Sub-Scores on the IMMS 35
Table 4 - 6 Statistics for the “Satisfaction” Sub-Scores on the IMMS 38
Chart 4 - 1 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #7 29
Chart 4 - 2 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #9 30
Chart 4 - 3 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #18 31
Chart 4 - 4 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #27 33
Chart 4 - 5 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #5 34
Chart 4 - 6 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #3 36
Chart 4 - 7 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #6 37
Chart 4 - 8 Percentage and Number of respondents – Item #28 37
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi1
PART I - INTRODUCTION
1. Introduction and rationale of the study
The 21st century has witnessed the rapid development of information technology and its
impacts on every aspect of our social life in which education in general and foreign language
teaching and learning in particular have been strongly affected. It can be said that ICT has
been applied in many teachers‟ lectures to bring fun and interest to students in English classes.
Ahead the trend of integration and development of technology, recognizing the benefit of ICT,
at the beginning of the year 2009, Thinh Quang primary school started using Phonics – an
English software - in English teaching and learning with the belief that Phonics would lay the
foundation to improve English language learning among children and create the environment
for children practice English from the early age.
It lies in the fact that Phonics is a newborn English program applied in some schools in
Vietnam including Thinh Quang primary school. This program is also the novel practice of
Phonics at Thinh Quang. It is partly for this deep-rooted reason that the researcher decided to
conduct the study to the extent the application of Phonics software brings about children’s
motivation. The researcher hold the belief that through the evaluation of the application of
Phonics there would bring insights into the changes of teaching practices among teachers to
better it, and basic premise for the administrators in considering using this software.
Specifically, the study is of: “An evaluation of the application of Phonics software in an
English course for children at Thinh Quang primary school.”
2. Aims and objectives of the Study
The study aims to evaluate the application of Phonics software based on the motivation
created on the part of children in an English course at Thinh Quang primary school.
Hence, it is expected to achieve the four following objectives:2
First, to investigate whether Phonics holds children attention.
Second, to find out the relevance of the application of Phonics to the children level.
Third, to investigate if the application of Phonics brings children‟s confidence in
learning English at class.
Last, to reveal children‟s satisfaction to the application of Phonics in the English
course.
3. Research questions
In order to achieve the aims of the study, the following research questions were raised:
(1) To what extent does Phonics hold children attention?
(2) To what extent is the application relevant to the children?
(3) To what extent does Phonics bring about children‟s confidence?
(4) To what extent are the children satisfied with the application?
4. Scope of the Study
The present study operates within the following scopes:
(i) As constructed in the IT, “application” depends on both the users (in context of
classroom, they are the teachers and the learners) and the instructional design. The
research is to evaluate the instructional design of the program. Purposely, it goes to
evaluate the motivation due to the instructional design created on part of the
children in an English course at Thinh Quang primary school.
(ii) This study is a case study since the instructional design is restricted by the children.
(iii) Regarding to the monitoring of the software, (Galavis, 1998) pointed out that
„Instead of being a simple holder and provider of knowledge, the teacher will
become the guide of students.‟ The teacher, in this case, does play the role as the
guider who controls the software leading children through every activity without
intervening the content of the software.
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi3
5. Methods of the Study
Case study was chosen as a research method applying for this study.
A questionnaire was used as a main instrument on 141 children of 4 classes including grade 1
and 2 at Thinh Quang primary school who have just finished the first level of the program –
Phonics, i.e., level starter, to investigate whether the instructional design brings about
motivation on children based on ARCS model of Keller (1993), including Attention,
Relevance, Confidence and Satisfaction.
An interview is then conducted on some students for clarifying problems arising from the data.
6. Significance of the Study
The research, first of all, would provide the researcher herself with further information to
validate the new software for the children, to see whether it is a good one in term of the
motivational factors positively affected through its instructional design.
The second significance of the study is for the improvement of English teaching and learning
at Thinh Quang primary school. The research is of great value for the teachers by providing
them a deep overview from the extent that the instructional design brings about children‟s
motivation. The teachers then would have better adapting in their teaching to better children‟s
learning.
Last but not least significance of the study lies in the fact that it can bring the teachers, the
students and the administrators the beliefs of using IT in language teaching and learning. The
researcher hopes that it would bring them positive beliefs on the use of information technology
in their class and school.
Finally, the study then informs to the designers of the children‟s perception of their software.
Accordingly, they would aware of the strong and weak points of their product.4
7. Organization of the Study
This study consists of three main parts: introduction, development, and conclusion.
The introduction presents the rationale, the aims and objectives, research questions, scope,
method, significance and design of the study.
The development comprises three chapters:
- Chapter one reviews the theoretical background to the application of CALL in English
language teaching with the models of CALL, the relation between motivation and the
young-learner, the relation between instructional design and motivation, the
description of Keller‟s ARCS Model of Motivation and some prominent recent
researches on ARCS of Keller.
- Chapter two details the setting of the study in which all the language items displayed in
the software are specifically defined and the context of the study are also described.
- Chapter three presents the methodology of the study.
- Chapter four is where the data are presented, the findings come up with and the
implications built upon the basis of the evaluation in the previous chapters.
The conclusion, apart from summarizing the main issues so far touched upon in the study,
proposes recommendation for future research.
Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi Ket-noi.com kho tai lieu mien phi5
PART II – DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter reviews selected literature reflective the potential impact of instructional design
on learner motivation. The chapter considers the popular models of CALL in language
teaching and learning and then reviews the relationship between motivation and the younglearner. Next the chapter looks at the principles of instructional design system, including
Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivation and its Motivation Instrumentation that support the
theory of improving learner motivation. It then ends by summarizing some prominent ARCS
researches laying the foundation for the present study.
1. 1. CALL Models in Language teaching and learning
According to Taylor (1980, cited in Warschaure (1996), the first model of CALL is computer
as a tutor, adopting the role of the teacher. He explained that the computer serves as a vehicle
for delivering instructional materials to the student. Many of the early CALL exercises were
drill and practice activities, often focusing on accuracy and fluency. The rationale for drill and
practice is as follows:
* Repeated exposure to the same material is beneficial or even essential to learning
* A computer is ideal for carrying out repeated drills, since the machine does not get bored
with presenting the same material and since it can provide immediate non-judgmental
feedback
* A computer can present such material on an individualized basis, allowing students to
proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities
Based on these notions, a number of CALL tutoring systems were developed for the
mainframe computers. One of the most sophisticated of these was the PLATO system, which6
included vocabulary drills, brief grammar explanations and drills, and translations tests at
various intervals.
In addition to computer as tutor, according to Taylor & Perez (1989) “another CALL model
used for communicative activities involves the computer as stimulus” (p. 63). In this case, the
purpose of the CALL activity is not so much as a tutorial itself but to generate analysis, critical
thinking, discussion, and writing. Software used for these purposes include various programs
which may not have been specifically designed for language learners, programs such as Sim
City, Sleuth, or Where in the World is San Diego?
The third model of computers involves the computer as a tool (Taylor, 1980) or, as sometimes
called, the computer as workhorse (Taylor & Perez, 1989). In this role, the programs
empower the learner to use or understand language. Wordstore, for example, allows users to
record vocabulary in a categorized dictionary, giving users both the opportunity to organize
vocabulary effectively and to retrieve words or phrases with greater ease when completing a
translation or other similar text (Jones 1986, p. 176, cited in Barr, 2004). Some more examples
of computer as tool include word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, desk-top
publishing programs, and concordancers.
Of course the distinction between these models is not absolute. A skill practice program can be
used as a conversational stimulus, as a paragraph written by a student on a word processor.
Likewise, there are a number of drill and practice programs which could be used in a more
communicative fashion - if, for example, students were assigned to work in pairs or small
groups and then compare and discuss their answers.
Among the three models offered by Taylor (1980), Phonics software embraced all
characteristics as of a tutor. This means that it rejects the role of the teacher in class by
providing the instructional materials itself.
1.2. Motivation and the Young - Learner
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1.2.1. Definition of Motivation
Foreign language acquisition theories support the notion that motivation is an important
factor in foreign language learning. Despite the widespread recognition of motivation as a
contributory factor to the success in language learning, defining it is problematic. This is a
problem because the clarification of a definition is the first step to any further investigation.
According to Gardner (1985, cited in Dornyei 2001: 49), motivation can be classified with
three components, including:
(1) motivational intensity
(2) desire to learn the language
(3) attitude towards learning the language
Gardner argued that these three components belong together because truly motivated
individual displays all three. The orientation helps to arouse motivation and then directs it
towards a set of goals, either with a strong interpersonal quality or a strong practical quality.
From Keller‟s point of view, motivation “refers to the magnitude and direction of behavior…
it refers to the choices people make as to what experience or goals they will approach or avoid,
and to the degree of effort they will exert in that respect” (Keller, 1983, p. 369). He then adds
three underlying assumptions for systematic motivational design as (a) people‟s motivations
can be influenced by external events; (b) motivation, in relation to performance, is a means
and not an end; and (c) systematic design and implementation can predictably and measurably
influence motivation. Put it another way, motivation based on Keller‟s definition, is measured
by the amount of effort the student makes in order to attain the instructional goal.
As can be inferred from the two definitions of motivation, the core elements in both are the
attitude, the effort and experience. Since the study focus on instructional design of the
software that bring about students‟ motivation, the definition of Keller is specific and of
referable.8
1.2.2. The Young-Learner
As the study deals with the subject of motivation, and more specifically, motivation in
instructional design, it is useful to consider the subject of young learners.
Foreign language instruction must take into the needs and characteristics of young learners in
order to be successful. Teaching objectives and approaches should be geared to the learners‟
cognitive level and interests. Young learners at the transition level (ages 5–8) generally have
the following characteristics. They are:
APPENDIX B
FOLLOW – UP INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
Eight children from 4 classes were asked to clarify in details the following statement based
on their opinion in the questionnaire survey.
Item #3* The lessons were more difficult to understand than I would like for it to be.
‘I feel that all the lessons are of difficult to understand, especially the reading section
which includes long sentences. I also find the pronunciation difficult too, I cannot imitate
exactly many words.’
‘I feet it difficult in writing section, the words are some time long that take me long time to
remember, just some common or easy words are of my favor.’
Item #5 It is clear to me how the content of this material is related to things I already
know.
‘There are many familiar topics such as animals, fruits, family, etc. Words and sentences
are the same with things in the life.’
‘Some stories are not of true or the same in my life such as the story about the horse, the
insect; I don’t like horses and insects.’
‘Some the same and some different. Some are familiar with me such as the boy, the girl.
Some are strange to me such the the owl, the mouse that can say, unbelievable.’
Item #18* The amount of repetition in every lesson caused me to get bored
sometimes.
‘I see the cartoon characters always repeated their saying or say the same thing so many
times that make me feel bored.’
‘I like all the cartoon stories; many of them are so good and interesting. However, for
example, if the boy and the girl appear in the stories all the time I would not like that way.’
‘I like the way the cartoon character repeats the sounds and words. This helps me a lot in
remembering them, sounding them and it is not boring at all.’ (2 children)
‘The continuous repetition is boring and I don’t like the scene that the boy and girl appear
all the time.’ (2 children)
‘The repetition helps me feel easy to learn by heard or remember the words or sounds right
in the class and feel of no boring.
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